Method for object recognition and/or verification on portable devices

ABSTRACT

A method for recognition and/or verification of authenticity of digital, and/or physical objects, comprising the steps of codebook training, object enrollment, and object verification, the latter consisting in object recognition and/or object authentication. The method uses two types of features, of codebooks, and of databases, which are specifically designed for identification, respectively authentication, the identification database and authentication database having different organizations. The invention is also directed to corresponding computer program means adapted to implement the proposed method, devices adapted for implementation of a method, as well as to applications which are particularly adapted for use of the proposed method.

PRIORITY CLAIM

The present application is a National Phase entry of PCT Application No.PCT/EP2015/025011, filed Mar. 9, 2015, which claims priority fromEuropean Patent Application Number 14160385.2, filed Mar. 17, 2014, thedisclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein intheir entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention concerns a method of providing automatic, fast,robust and secure recognition and/or verification of authenticity ofdigital—and/or physical objects comprising the steps of codebooktraining, enrollment, identification, and/or authentication.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION AND STATE OF THE ART

In general, the present invention is situated in the context of physicalobject security which forms an important issue since quite some time inseveral domains, such as pharmaceutical and cosmetics products,electronics, luxury watches, text documents and certificates due to thestriking numbers and scale of counterfeiting and its spread worldwide.Despite numerous efforts from brand owners and manufacturers, theend-consumers are not well aware, respectively cannot be well aware ofthe particularities of the original design of a given product or contentwhich is often changed for various commercial and technical reasons andthe entire spectrum of security features applied to protect a particularbrand. To protect the consumer, for example against taking acounterfeited drug, and to create an essential element of a globalanti-counterfeiting network, it would be highly desirable that users canperform a verification by themselves. Furthermore, it would be desirablethat information from such verifications could be stored and analysed,amongst other in order to contribute towards accurate and fastinformation on geographical trends in appearance and distribution incounterfeiting goods as soon as such items enter the market. A similarsituation also exists with respect to banknotes that are protected byquite sophisticated security techniques which, however, may not beverified by the average end-consumer, but only by experts.

The problem is complicated by the fact that over the past several years,counterfeiters have gained access to sophisticated technologies thatenable them to closely duplicate the brand products. It is a well knownfact that counterfeited products can be so accurately duplicated that iteven experts might need some special equipment to verify them. However,counterfeited products in most cases bear, as compared to the genuineproducts, some differences that can be easily recognized by trainedexperts but that are at the same time difficult or almost impossible tobe recognized by casual consumers.

Previous attempts of the security industry to introduce securitytechnologies based on special detectors had little success. This is dueto the fact that it is commercially highly unattractive to producespecific hardware devices, which would need to be distributed andregularly upgraded on a global level, simply for verifying individualproducts. Moreover, although there is a need for fast authentication ofconsumer goods, end consumers show little interest in using specializeddevices for anti-counterfeiting measures, respectively cannot havespecific know-how that might be needed to use such specialized devices.

Existing security mechanisms require to modify the technologicalapproach or manufacturing processes of products, do change the look orproperties of products, do add extra features or materials, such asholograms, RFIDs, magnetic, rare-earth or luminescent materials, or dorequire interventions or invasive procedures. Moreover, such protectionmechanisms do not always ensure backward compatibility with productsalready produced in the past.

In general, there currently exist three main methods allowing to realizeproduct verification and, coming along with that, a kind of consumerprotection, which, however, use fundamentally different approaches. Onemethod is digital watermarking, also referred to as data hiding, anothermethod is content fingerprinting, also known as robust hashing, andthere finally exist methods based on direct visual inspection.

Digital watermarking or data hiding achieves protection by contentmodification, in particular by embedding a special mark or encodedmessage which carries information on the protected content. Some of themethods that implement this functionality to physical documents aredescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,991,182 for images and in U.S. Pat. No.7,644,281 for text documents and vector graphics including barcodes asdescribed in US 2010/0012736. The content should be modified such as toensure reliable and secure extraction of an embedded, desired message.This has three important consequences concerning the necessity (a) tomodify the content or object either prior to manufacturing orreproduction or to introduce the marking to already existing objects,see e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 7,965,862, (b) that it is also clonable, if theobject design is quite accurately reproduced, and (c) that all objectsshould be protected by this technology prior to their distribution whichis difficult or almost impossible to realize in practice. In fact,watermarking algorithms are designed to be robust to differentimperfections in acquisition, especially on mobile devices. Therefore,even if a fake contains some imperfections, the inherent capability ofdigital watermarks to correct errors will “mask” such imperfections andreduce the ability to detect the fake. Furthermore, direct productmarking is also disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,686,231, where a visiblemarking is added to the product. However, such product modificationoften is not acceptable to brands and manufacturers because of modifyingthe product design and look, or complicating the existing manufacturingpipeline. Similar methods are also known to mark text documents bymodifying the character shape and size, elements of characters, printinghalftone etc., see e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 7,644,281. Being acceptable fornew documents, these methods cannot cope with already produceddocuments. Therefore, such methods do not provide protection for certaintypes of documents.

Digital content fingerprinting or robust hashing are techniques whichextract a fingerprint directly from the object features and nopreliminary content pre-processing is performed. As a result, thefingerprints are not very robust in comparison to digital watermarks.This technique is primarily used for digital media such as video andimages, see e.g. US 2009/0292701 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,552,120, as well asaudio, see e.g. J. Haitsma, T. Kalker, and J. Oostveen, “Robust audiohashing for con-tent identification,” in Proc. of the Content-BasedMultimedia Indexing, Firenze, Italy, September 2001. However, it is alsoused for physical documents, such as described in in F. Jordan, M.Kutter, C. di Venuto, Means for using microstructure of materialssurface as a unique identifier, WO 2007/028799, and R. P. Cowburn, J. D.R. Buchanan, Authenticity verification by means of optical scattering,WO 2006/120398. The lack of robustness leads to a large amount of errorsor mismatches between the original fingerprint and the fingerprintextracted from a distorted counterpart of the original object. In turn,this results in the necessity to perform a highly complex search andidentification for trying to match the original fingerprint and theextracted fingerprint. As a result it is difficult to distinguish theerrors due to the acquisition imperfections from those caused by contentmodifications. In recent years, methods were developed which use localfeatures designed in the computer vision for object recognition.

This is well suited to classification of objects into several predefinedcategories that rarely exceed 20′000 classes or searching ofsemantically similar images. However, the local nature of robustfeatures does not make it possible to detect the small or invisibledifferences in the object design or appearance. These methods are usedfor content-based retrieval where only rough or semantic similarity issufficient to find perceptually close objects. Also, the application offingerprinting methods for characterising materials that are used forthe tracking and tracing of individual items is often not suitable dueto (a) complexity of acquisition of a fingerprint from each item, (b)the management of huge databases and (c) searching in these databasesthat can be in the of order of billions of entries. In most cases, evensome special imaging devices are needed to capture the structure ofmaterials, see e.g. R. P. Cowburn, J. D. R. Buchanan, Authenticityverification by means of optical scattering, WO 2006/120398.

The use of fingerprinting techniques is also disclosed in US2012/10324534 for verification of authenticity of an identity document.The fingerprints are extracted from the text parts and photographicimages of the digitized documents using specially designed local andglobal descriptors adapted to facial images. The text parts arerecognized by Optical Character Recognition (OCR) in predefined andaligned regions. These are stored in a centralized database. The globaldescriptors are computed based on image gradients, whereas the localdescriptors are based on a binarized source image. These descriptors aresuited for the authentication of identity documents, because the facialimages on said documents can be well acquired, standardized according tothe templates, and do not exhibit a lot of variability in terms ofsemantic context. However, this approach meets serious technicalconstraints if applied to generic object identification, where thereproduced information might be highly variable and non-homogeneous.Furthermore, apart from not being adapted for other types of objectsthan identity documents having a well defined structure, this frameworkis not adapted to be used on any kind of device, because many devicessuffer from non-linear geometric distortions, which impact the stabilityof the above mentioned descriptors.

Several documents like US 2011/0158483, US 2010/0329576 disclose asystem for printed document authentication and alteration detectionbased on the well-known bag-of-feature principle, see e.g. also D. G.Lowe, Object recognition from local scale invariant features. In theProc. of 7^(th) International Conference on Computer Vision, Sep. 20-27,1999. Segmented parts of a document are considered as individual imagescontaining small elements. A codebook is trained on these smallelements, which contain text fragments. Documents to be verified that donot match sufficiently against the enrolled elements in the codebook areconsidered to be fake. Unfortunately, these block-wise features are notinvariant to geometrical distortions, thus necessitating some form ofpre-alignment. Such an alignment is possible leveraging the intrinsicgeometric structure of the lines of text in a document. However, thisapproach is obviously not applicable for generic objects that lackstrict design elements. Additionally, such type of codebook withblock-wise patches can be trained on generic fonts and languages andwill not exhibit a lot of variability. In contrast, for authenticatingany kind of objects graphic design elements will be more distinctive andconsequently also require more memory storage, such that theverification procedure will be more computational intensive. On top ofthat and similar to the previously described method, depending on theacquisition device used to acquire the entire page document, geometricdistortions may be introduced in the acquired image patches burdeningthe system and hurting performance. Finally, document authentication isassumed to be performed on a document whose identity is perfectly knownin advance and which might be established based on added bar codesor-any marking which is not feasible in many type of applications.

Security techniques based on visual inspection require either (a)perfect knowledge of the object design particularities or (b) in frontpresence of a design reference template. At large scale, this isdifficult to manage, store and search. Moreover, it is impossible to seesmall imperfections or deviations by the naked eye. Moreover, the needto store and distribute the elements of design with a high level ofdetails in an open form accessible to humans is not well appreciated bybrand owners for various security reasons, since leading to an easierclonability of objects as well as a leak of technological know-how tocompetitors. Known systems for visual off-line quality inspectionrequire high-resolution stationary imaging systems with accuratealignment of samples and light, see for example the disclosure ofWO2013/163978.

In short, the above mentioned existing methods comprise several problemsfor a variety of reasons which comprise the need to introducemodifications, low discriminative capabilities, high complexity ofinvolved procedures, fundamental restrictions of humans to examinevariations at microscopic level or simply the lack of desire of doing sofor the ordinary consumers, and the fact that product design elementsshould be securely protected prior to storage in publicly availableservices or distribution to consumer devices.

The solutions according to prior art therefore do not entirely satisfynowadays needs with respect to the protection of generic physical—ordigital objects, such that there is still a need for a method forautomatic, fast, reliable and secure verification of authenticity ofobjects to the consumer.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Thus, it is an object of the present invention to overcome the abovementioned difficulties and disadvantages such as to realize a method forverification of authenticity and/or recognition of digital—and/orphysical objects which is fast, robust, accurate and secure, whilst themethod does neither introduce any object modifications or add anymaterials, codes, or electronic chips to the object to be verified normodify already existing manufacturing processes. Another objective isthat the method should protect at least part of the object features, inparticular of specific design features which should not be disclosed,whilst safe authentication remaining possible even in this case. As afurther objective, the method for verification of authenticity ofphysical objects should be technologically relatively easy to implementon the manufacturing side as well as, in particular, simple to handle onthe consumer side such as to be effectively accepted both bymanufacturers and end consumers. It is another object of the presentinvention to realize corresponding computer program means adapted toimplement the proposed method, as well as to use the method for theprotection and/or recognition of digital—and/or physical objects.

To this effect, the present invention proposes a method for recognitionand/or verification of authenticity of digital—and/or physical objectswhich is characterized by the features enumerated in claim 1 and whichallow to achieve the objectives identified above. In particular, themethod according to the present invention distinguishes from prior artmethods by the fact that it uses two types of features, of codebooks,and of databases which are specifically designed for identification,respectively authentication, the identification database andauthentication database having different organizations.

In particular, the identification database is designed as an invertedfile with an identification feature with a given index m containing thecorresponding indices of objects possessing this feature, whilst theauthentication database is designed as a lookup table storing at index mthe authentication features of an object with an attributed index m.Also, the codebook training, object enrollment, and object verificationsteps of the method are specifically organized such as to use inparticularly advantageous way the different types of features whichserve different purposes. Accordingly, the types of features are treatedin different manner. For example the identification features may beencoded by multiple assignment, i.e. in overlapping regions at theseparation boundaries between neighboring feature centroids featuresbelonging to these overlapping regions are and attributed to all of thecorresponding centroids. A reliability function may be used as a weightfor these features. Furthermore, alignment may be applied in differentways, and feature encoding may be crypted in order to secure the objectdesign against counterfeiting.

Other features together with technical details, theoretical derivationsand experimental data supporting the proposed method as well as thecorresponding advantages of the present invention are mentioned in thedependent claims as well as in the description disclosing in thefollowing, with reference to the figures, the invention in more detail.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The attached figures exemplarily and schematically illustrate theprinciples as well as several embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 1 schematically shows typical counterfeiting of printed logos andtext with differences in the text position, text font, letter spacing,and font size.

FIG. 2 schematically illustrates the codebook training step of a methodaccording to the present invention.

FIG. 3 schematically illustrates the enrollment step for a givendigital—or physical object.

FIG. 4 is a generalized block diagram showing digital—and/or physicalobject verification based on sequential object type identification,high-precision synchronization and authentication according to thepresent invention.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing in more detail identification stepaccording to FIG. 4.

FIG. 6 is a block-diagram showing in more detail the feature extractionstep for identification and illustrates in exemplary and schematicmanner a possible implementation of step (2) of FIGS. 4 and 5.

FIG. 7 shows an example for the global alignment step of FIG. 6 based onan autocorrelation function (ACF) of a brand logo “BRAND”.

FIG. 8 shows an example for the global alignment step of FIG. 6 based onthe ACF of dither patterns.

FIG. 9 shows an example for the global alignment step of FIG. 6 based onthe ACF for printed documents.

FIG. 10 shows the document of FIG. 9 in a rotated position and itscorresponding ACF.

FIG. 11 schematically and exemplarily illustrates a first embodiment ofdescriptor computation according to step (18) of FIG. 6 for some elementof brand text “B”.

FIG. 12 illustrates the design principle of a descriptor computedaccording to the first embodiment of descriptor computation shown inFIG. 11.

FIG. 13 schematically and exemplarily illustrates several possibilitiesof semantic descriptor design composed of multiple descriptors containedwithin the same semantic group defined by the shape of letter “B”.

FIG. 14 illustrates the robustness of the extracted identificationfeatures to rotation.

FIG. 15 demonstrates the robustness of the extracted identificationfeatures to real mobile phone imaging suffering under projectivetransformation.

FIG. 16 schematically illustrates a semantic hierarchical featureorganization.

FIG. 17 schematically illustrates an embodiment of feature matchingadapted for the identification step (2) of FIGS. 4 and 5 based onhierarchical semantic organization of FIG. 16.

FIG. 18 schematically illustrates further embodiments implementingdifferent semantic hierarchical feature organizations based on geometricproximity of features used for the design, in particular based onsemantic, block-based and distance-based measures.

FIG. 19 schematically illustrates optional encoding of cross-sectionfeatures of FIG. 13.

FIG. 20 shows an example of the framework presented in FIG. 19 appliedto images acquired by mobile phone.

FIG. 21 shows an example of similar feature extraction like in FIG. 20applied to a text document.

FIG. 22 shows an example of the same framework applied to images.

FIG. 23 illustrates in schematic manner a further embodiment of afeature encoding framework according to the present invention.

FIG. 24 schematically illustrates a concept of using feature reliabilitywith respect to features situated in the overlapping regions between thecentroids in the feature encoding framework according to FIG. 23.

FIG. 25 illustrates typical distortions occuring in mobile imaging,particularly on mobile phones equipped with cameras.

FIG. 26 illustrates the enrollment step for the authenticationcorresponding to FIGS. 2 and 3.

FIG. 27 schematically illustrates the authentication step correspondingto step (12) in FIG. 4.

FIG. 28 illustrates a secure implementation of the authenticationframework presented in FIGS. 26 and 27.

FIG. 29 illustrates the application of the proposed method toauthentication of printed text acquired by mobile phone.

FIG. 30 shows the differences between the original image and the fakedimage of FIG. 29 in three-dimensional-and two-dimensional manner.

FIG. 31 illustrates the ability of the method according to the presentinvention to detect differences in the halftone patterns which areinvisible to the human eye.

FIG. 32 shows the differences between the images shown undermagnification in FIG. 31 such as detected according to the methodillustrated schematically in FIGS. 26-28.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following, the invention shall be described in detail withreference to the above mentioned figures.

The present invention, in general, is situated in the context oftechniques that are used for protection of digital—and/or physicalobjects against counterfeiting. FIG. 1 exemplifies typicalcounterfeiting of printed logos and text with differences in the textposition, e.g. translation 111 of the text, in the text font 112, in theletter spacing 113, and in the font size 114. Other examples mightinclude the differences in color, type of halftone patterns and printingtechnologies, or different placement of halftone patterns. According tothe present invention, protection of digital—and/or physical objects isachieved by automatic verification of the objects by use of mobilephones or other imaging equipment adapted to be used by end consumers.

The proposed method for object verification is based on the verificationof the correspondence between a probe under investigation and areference design enrolled by an authorized party. If the correspondenceis within pre-established margins, the object is declared as an objectthat resembles the original design within the corresponding confidencelevel and it is assumed to be authentic. Otherwise, its authenticity isdenied. Such verification is performed based on mobile phone imaging andautomatically, without intervention of humans, which makes the methodfast, reliable, flexible and applicable to large-scale applications.

The verification process being intuitively simple represents at the sametime a number of technological challenges related to the fact that theverification shall be executed by use of mobile phones. Suchverification has to deal with very strong non-linear and geometricaldistortions, high variability of imaging conditions leading to imageblurring and defocusing, and compression artifacts explicitly present inmost mobile imaging architectures. In addition, the number of objectsthat should be verified might be very large and reach millions. Thisleads to the necessity to store and match all their particular anddistinguishable features which induces complexity and memory storageissues. The number of features per item might be very large and, withall necessary representations and indexing, might exceed the size of agiven original image. In addition, these features should be stored anddistributed securely to avoid any leakages leading to successfulbypassing of the verification mechanisms. Not less important is thebackward compatibility when the proposed protection should be applied toalready manufactured objects or objects in circulation. Moreover, nodistortions or modifications to new objects are allowed in manyapplications as well as no optical, electronic or printed elements canbe added to the object to be protected besides those elements that arealready present.

To resolve all these challenging requirements, the method ofverification according to the present invention is applied to anyexisting object without any need to introduce any additionalmodifications or interventions to both the object and its manufacturingprocess. The verification features can be acquired and enrolled at anytime in the product/object life circle and by any authorized party. Theidentification of objects by their features is very efficient and oftenrepresents only a small fraction of a given original image size. Theidentification is also very fast and can be applied to hundreds ofmillions of objects in a very short time. In addition, the way in whichthe verification features are stored assures their secure distributionand even allows outsourcing of such verification services to thirdparties or cloud-based services.

Several embodiments of a method of recognition and/or verification ofauthenticity of digital—and/or physical objects according to the presentinvention will be described in the following in detailed manner byreferring to the accompanying drawings.

In general, a method of recognition and/or verification of authenticityof digital—and/or physical objects according to the present inventioncomprises several steps, in particular the steps of codebook training,object enrollment, and object verification which may consist in objectrecognition and/or authentication. Each of these steps comprises severalsubsteps which may be realized in different manner and will be describedhere below.

1. Codebook Training

Given a set of training images acquired from real objects to beprotected, respectively to be authenticated by the proposed method, orcorresponding training images provided in electronic form, a firstmethod step called codebook training is accomplished. The goal ofcodebook training is to find the most compact and representative groupof features that can be used for the unique, robust and reliableidentification and authentication of a given object.

The codebook training is schematically shown in FIG. 2 and consists oftwo parts that have essentially the same structure, i.e. codebooktraining for identification and codebook training for authentication. Atthe first stage two groups of identification and authentication featuresare extracted from a set of training images in steps (2) and (6) of FIG.2, respectively. These features are then each clustered in a pre-definednumber of clusters in steps (212) and (214), respectively. The number ofclusters is chosen to find a reasonable trade-off between approximationaccuracy, complexity, and memory. For this reason, the vectors offeatures are splitted into J disjoint blocks and k-means algorithmsproduce K centroids in each block. These centroids are registered incorresponding codebooks. Although codebook training is a standardelement of many machine learning and computer vision algorithms, it isimportant to note that the method according to the present inventioncomprises two types of codebooks which are used for identification,respectively authentication. These codebooks can be considered asdifferent levels of granularity where the features used foridentification tolerate relatively severe variations in featuremismatching while the authentication features and codebook are designedin such a way to sense even minor deviations in the image underinvestigation with respect to a pre-defined template as shown in FIG. 1.That is why most of features designed in state-of-the-art vision andpattern recognition systems such as SIFT, SURF, ORB, GLOH, etc., are notsuitable for the proposed method and it is a subject of the presentinvention to present a new set of features and also a new way of theirencoding.

In detail, given a training set of images x(1), . . . , x(T) consistingof T training images (210), the proposed method extracts for each image,in step (2) of FIG. 2, the features _(i), . . . , x_(i)(T) that will beused, in step (3) of FIG. 2, for identification codebook C_(i) trainingand, in step (6) of FIG. 2, the features x_(a)(1), . . . , x_(a)(T) thatwill be used, in step (7) of FIG. 2, for authentication codebook C_(a)training. The corresponding vector quantizers (212) and (214) aretrained based on k-means clustering algorithms (213) and (215) appliedto the identification and authentication features extracted from said Ttrained images, accordingly. The training images might come from designfiles provided by the authorized parties or be acquired directly from aset of training objects. The identification codebook C_(i) also containsinformation about the feature points in which the identificationfeatures are computed, such as will become clear in the further courseof the description.

2. Object Enrollment

The object enrollment is based on the codebook training steps (3) and(7) illustrated in 10 FIG. 2, respectively on the corresponding trainedidentification codebook C_(i) and authentication codebook C_(a). FIG. 3schematically illustrates the enrollment step for a given object withindex m. An image x(m) of the given object might come from design filesprovided by an authorized party or be acquired directly from thephysical object to be protected. Given the object image x(m) as shown instep (1) of FIG. 3, where the object index m defines its type and allmetadata in the dataset, the acquired object image x(m) is decomposedsuch as to extract identification features x_(i)(m) and authenticationfeatures x_(a)(m) in steps (2), respectively (6) of FIG. 3. Theidentification features x_(i)(m) are enrolled into and stored in thedatabase D_(i) in steps (4) and (5) of FIG. 3 using identificationcodebook C_(i) previously trained in codebook training step (3). Theauthentication features x_(a)(m) are enrolled into and stored indatabase D_(a) (9) in steps (8) and (9) using authentication codebookC_(a) previously trained in codebook training step (7). It is importantto remark that the databases D_(i) and D_(a) have differentorganizations. The identification database D_(i) is designed as aninverted file, i.e. an identification feature x_(i)(m) with a givenindex m contains the corresponding indices of objects possessing thisfeature. The authentication database D_(a) is designed as a lookuptable, which stores the authentication features x_(a)(m) under the indexM.

3. Verification

The object verification consists of three main steps such as shown inFIG. 4. The latter illustrates the overall idea of the proposed methodand shows the further steps and elements of object verification. Animage y of the object (100) under verification is acquired in step (10)by use of an acquisition device (401), preferable by a mobileacquisition device such as a mobile telephone equipped with a camera orany other imaging equipment adapted for use by an end consumer. Thefeature extraction steps (2) and (6) of FIG. 3 are then appliedanaloguously to the acquired image y, by decomposing said image y intoidentification features y_(i) and authentication features y_(a). Then,in a first main object verification step, the type of object y isidentified in step (11) by producing an estimate of the object index m′referring to the identification database of enrolled identificationfeatures stored in the identification database D_(i). This is achievedby matching the identification features y_(i) extracted from theacquired image y with those stored in the identification codebook C_(i).The matched features are forwarded to the inverted file identificationdatabase D_(i), which identifies the most likely candidate indices ofobjects known in the identification database D_(i) which couldcorrespond to the object under verification. Then, the identificationstep (11) makes a final decision about the type of object probablyrepresented by the object under verification and forwards its index m′to the authentication database D_(a). If the object under investigationcannot be identified uniquely in identification step (11), severalestimates are produced and revealed to the user, such that the lattermay select an appropriate one by direct interaction with the system byproviding a user feedback in step (13) of FIG. 4. Otherwise, the methodchases the most likely candidate and forwards the final estimate m′ tothe authentication database D_(a). The produced estimate corresponds tothe image in the identification database D_(i) which is closest to theacquired image y. However, this stage does not guarantee identificationof the object under inspection on microscopic level. Therefore, once thetype of object is recognized, final verification is based on validationof authenticity at an authentication stage. To that effect, theauthentication database D_(a) containing the templates of enrolledauthentication features x_(a)(m′) of authentic objects retrievesinformation necessary for reliable authentication. The authenticationdatabase D_(a) obtains the enrolled authentication features x_(a)(m′) ofthe final estimate m′ having been forwarded. In case of severalforwarded candidates, all corresponding templates are extracted from thedatabase D_(a) for the final verification. Then, the authenticationfeatures y_(a)(m′) extracted from the acquired image y in step (6) arealigned, in a second main object verification step, with the templateauthentication features x_(a)(m′) obtained from the authenticationdatabase D_(a) in alignment step (402) of FIG. 4, resulting in alignedauthentication features y′a(m′). Then, the final decision onauthenticity of the object under investigation is performed in a thirdmain object verification step, authentication step (12) of FIG. 4, bycomparing the aligned features y′_(a)(m′) with the templateauthentication features x_(a)(m′) obtained from the authenticationdatabase D_(a). The method determines the level of correspondencebetween the aligned features y′_(a)(m′) and features x_(a)(m′) andproduces an overall decision with respect to authenticity of the objectunder verification and/or displays the differences by highlighting themajor differences between the compared features.

3.1. Object Identification

Unique object identification can be based on barcodes that contain theencoded type of object. However, barcodes usually are not printed at thesame side of a packaging than the main informative or commercial design.To the contrary, barcodes are often printed on the backside or bottom ofpackaging such as to facilitate fast reading and to avoid interferencewith the commercial design. Therefore, if barcodes are used foridentification, then a two stage acquisition is needed from the frontalside that requires a corresponding two-stage imaging. In someapplications, this is acceptable. However, this is not user-friendly andmight take too much time. Moreover, many documents might not containbarcodes. For these reasons as well as to facilitate the interactionprotocol, the method according to the present invention uses a one-stageverification which identifies and authenticates the object from the samedesign, i.e. by using only a single image.

The structure of the object identification step (11) of FIG. 4 is shownin schematic manner in FIG. 5. It consists of three main stages whichare feature extraction (2), feature matching (15), and geometricmatching (16). The feature extraction step (2) for identificationextracts a set of identification features y_(i) from the probe image y.The implementation of the feature extraction is explained in more detailhere below with reference to FIG. 6. The extracted identificationfeatures y_(i) are matched with the identification database D_(i) instep (15) of FIG. 5 via the identification codebook C_(i) resulting intoa list of possible closest candidates L(y_(i)) possessing similaridentification features. To this effect, each feature from a set offeatures y_(i) is tested versus the codebook C_(i) (3) to produce theindices of features corresponding to y_(i). Then, the obtained indicesof features are passed to the identification database D_(i), which isorganized as an inverted file. The database D_(i) returns thecorresponding indices of objects containing the above mentioned indicesof features. This operation works like a look up table and is very fast.For ease of explanation at this place, the fast and robustimplementation of feature matching will be explained in more detail inthe further course of the description with referral to FIG. 23. Thethird and final main step of identification cross-checks the spatialappearance of feature indices in a geometric matching step (16), incorrespondence to the spatial appearance of the retrieved list of objectcandidates L(y_(i)). The candidate with the best match is identified asthe index m′. If such a candidate cannot be uniquely identified andseveral candidates have the same level of similarity, then all thesecandidates are chosen. Otherwise, if none of the candidates from thelist L(y_(i)) fulfils a pre-defined limit of similarity, the object isdeclared as not recognized, which is considered either as an indicatorthat the object under inspection is probably a fake or that it is a newobject that is not yet in the database of authentic objects. In bothcases, the verification procedure is terminated and the user is properlyinformed about this result.

The feature extraction step (2) for identification such as illustratedin schematic manner in FIG. 6 forms a possible implementation of step(2) of FIGS. 4 and 5. It consists of the steps of global alignment (16),key points extracting (17), and computation of descriptors (18).

The goal of global alignment consists in transformation of the acquiredprobe image y to the reference coordinate system that might include somefixed orientation, scale, etc. The alignment can be based on genericstructured properties of logo, dither patterns or text symbols andassumption about the shape of verified object such as for examplecorners of package. This results into the aligned image y_(all). Theglobal alignment consists in the estimation of a global rotation anglebased on the periodical properties of letters and/or halftone patternsleading to the appearance of clear peaks in the ACF. The misplacement ofpeaks with respect to the chosen reference coordinates indicates therotation angle. The scaling can be estimated in the same way. Moreover,the global alignment can be implemented during the acquisition processwhen the shape of the object is roughly matched with some adjustmentframe displayed on the screen of the imaging device used for imageacquisition. In general, such a rough alignment might be sufficient forreliable key point detection and descriptor computation. The globalalignment step (16) might not be necessary in all cases, thus isoptional. If this step is not performed, the image y is directly passedto the key point extraction step (17).

Examples of global alignment based on an autocorrelation function (ACF)are shown in FIGS. 7, 8, and 9, 10 for a brand text logo, a halftonepattern and a multi-line text document, respectively. FIG. 7 illustratesthe global alignment step (16) of FIG. 6 by use of an example based onan autocorrelation function (ACF) for a brand logo “BRAND”, the latterbeing shown in the original (701) and rotated (702) positions togetherwith the corresponding ACFs (703) and (704). Clear peaks indicate theorientation of the logo that can be used for fine horizontal alignment.It can be also used for the scale normalization. A very preciseestimation of the ACF parameters is obtained by preliminary computationof absolute values of gradients of the input images. The computation ofthe ACF, known in principle in prior art and thus not requiring furtherexplanation at this place, is very efficient using the Fast FourierTransform (FFT). FIG. 8 illustrates the global alignment step (16) ofFIG. 6 by use of an example based on the ACF of dither patterns. Thedither pattern (800) for printed text or images has a periodicalstructure for different color components. The letter “U” was printedusing ordered halftoning. A region within a small white rectangle withinthe letter “U” was used to compute an ACF that is shown intwo-dimensional (802) and three-dimensional plots (804). The rotation ofthe letter “U” (801) is reflected in the modification of thecorresponding ACF taken within the same region of said “U” as shown intwo-dimensional (803) and three-dimensional plots (805) of FIG. 8. FIG.9 illustrates the global alignment step (16) of FIG. 6 by use of anexample based on the ACF for printed documents that consist of multiplelines of text characters. The lines of text represent a periodicalstructure (901) that is reflected in the periodicity of thecorresponding ACF (902). FIG. 10 shows the document of FIG. 9 in arotated position (1001) and its corresponding ACF (1002). The parallellines are rotated at a corresponding angle. Such a rotation can beaccurately automatically estimated such that the document can bealigned.

The key point extraction step (17) extracts a set of pre-definedcharacteristic points in the image y. The predefined points are definedas a predefined set of features in the codebook C_(i) (3) and mightinclude edges, lines or special shapes of text, graphics or imagepatches. Alternatively, the key points are computed periodically overthe image y with a defined periodicity and structure of a correspondingsampling grid. The key point extraction (17) results into a set of keypoints y_(k) that are characterized by a position and their indicesaccording to the codebook C_(i). The coordinates of key points y_(k) areindexed and passed to the descriptor computation (18).

The descriptor computation step (18) might be applied to each individualkey point y^(k) or to a group of key points with a pre-definedconfiguration. Step (18) computes the descriptors yd in the positionsdefined by the previously determined set of key points y_(k) in thealigned image y_(all). The descriptors characterize shape, color, typeof dithering, as well as distances between the key points and comprisesemantic information related to attribution of the descriptors tospecific semantic groups, e.g. to the same character shape or graphicdesign element, as well as encoded information characterizing the designelements between two key points with pre-defined properties. Finally, ina combination step (19), the key points and their descriptors arecombined into a compact form that corresponds to the identificationfeatures y_(i).

Examples of the descriptor computation according to step (18) of FIG. 6are shown in FIGS. 11 to 13. In a first embodiment shown in FIG. 11, thedescriptor (21) characterizes the local statistics of a given key point(20) which in this example is defined as a corner with predefinedproperties. The descriptor (21) is characterized by an angle (22)between the gradient at the key point (20) with respect to two edgesforming the corner shape defining the key point (20) and the nearestdesign element (23) in clock-wise order such as shown in FIG. 11. Thedescriptor (21) is designed such as to be always symmetrical to theshapes left-wise and right-wise. All descriptors computed within thesame “semantic” element of the segmented letter “B”, i.e. within theshape of letter “B”, are combined together. To provide compact androbust representation, the angle (22) is represented in quantized wayusing a discrete grid of segments, such as illustrated schematically inFIG. 12, and encoded using Gray code, thus producing a binary indexrepresenting the determined angle (22). Each segment is assigned abinary index and the binary indices of all segments are generated in aform of the Gray code to produce a robust encoding of gradientorientation. The binary indices of all segments are generated in a formof the Gray code to produce a robust encoding of gradient orientation.If the designed element (1201) is acquired under some projectivetransformation resulting in a transformed element (1202), the angle (22)between the gradient (20) at the key point (20) and the design element(23) might change which will might result into another index afterquantization. Gray encoding ensures robust extraction of the binarysegment index corresponding to the angle (22) with a minimum Hammingdistance between neighboring segments.

In another embodiment shown in FIG. 13, the descriptors might includemultiple key points description by quantizing (1) the distances betweenall key points (1301)-(1306), computed and stored in quantized mannersimilar to the angle encoding based on Gray labeling, or their ratios,(2) the features extracted along a virtual connecting line between thesekey points, like the connecting line between the key points (1301) and(1302) crossing the elements of letter “B” exemplarily indicated in FIG.13, such as the proportion between the black and white regions orbetween the positions of crossing points, (3) the proportion between theangles (1307) and (1308) formed between the gradients and saidconnecting line between given key points, such as illustrated in FIG.13, (4) the proportion of all angles and distances between all localdescriptors, and finally (5) a function g(.) computed in the point ofcross-section and design element that might for example consist in alocal gradient. All these data can be efficiently represented byhistograms like depicted as (1310) and (1311) in FIG. 13. In anotherembodiment not illustrated in the figures, special rules can be chosento determine the order of description such as to reduce the complexityand memory used by the descriptors. For example, the vertical line ofletter shape “B” and the line connecting the key points (1301) and(1303) indicated in FIG. 13 can be chosen as a reference system. Thelargest non-ambiguous distance between two key points can be used asreference. The key points with a certain ratio of distances, angles andcross-sections can also be chosen as reference systems. Finally,specific colors can serve for the same goal.

FIGS. 14 and 15 illustrate the robustness of the identification featuresextracted in the above described manner to rotation and mobile phoneimaging with projective transformation, respectively. In FIG. 14, upperline, the word “BRAND” is reproduced in two different fonts (1401) and(1403) and the above described descriptors are computed for each font.The resulting descriptors demonstrate a high distinguishability betweenthe word “BRAND” reproduced by two different fonts. In FIG. 14, lowerline, the descriptors produced by the method according to the presentinvention for rotated counterparts (1402) and (1404) of the word “BRAND”(1401) and (1403), again reproduced in two different fonts, posses aremarkable similarity with the descriptors produced for the non-rotatedwords “BRAND” (1401) and (1403), which demonstrates the high robustnessof the method. In FIG. 15, the left image (1501) corresponds to anoriginal image and the right image (1502) shows a corresponding imagesuch as acquired by a mobile phone under projective transformation, thedescriptors produced by the method according to the present inventionbeing in both cases indicated schematically and exemplarily. Acomparison shows that about 10% of descriptors have disappeared orappeared in false positions whereas 90% of descriptors are correctlyextracted which again demonstrates a remarkable performance of themethod. As shown by these examples, the proposed identification featuresdemonstrate a very stable performance.

In another embodiment, the identification features can be organized intoa specific semantic hierarchical feature structure such as schematicallyshown in FIG. 16. In this case, all design elements have somedistinctive connected features which are grouped at several hierarchicallevels (1901)-(1903) by sequentially combining the features fromindividual elements. First, the features are semantically extracted fromeach design element. Then, features extracted from nearby neighbors arecombining at a first hierarchical level (1901), afterwards neighboringcombined features of the first hierarchical level (1901) are grouped ata second hierarchical level (1902), until finally all elements togetherare combined at a last hierarchical level (1903), the number of levelsdepending on the manner of combination and the number of features to becombined. The order of semantic elements is also recorded. Thecorresponding identification codebooks C_(i1), C_(i2), . . . , C_(iL)are trained and the resulting encoded identification features are storedin the database D_(i) containing the indices of trained features andcorresponding object identifiers.

The decoding or search in such a hierarchical structure is schematicallyillustrated in FIG. 17, this type of feature matching being adapted forthe identification step (2) of FIGS. 4 and 5 in case the identificationfeatures were based on hierarchical semantic organization according toFIG. 16. The features are extracted from the probe image y in step (2),thus resulting into a feature vector y_(i). A first level decoder (2001)produces a list of possible candidates L_(i)(y) that match best (2002)at the first level representation according to the codebook C_(i1). Thecorresponding indices of objects are retrieved from the database D_(i)in step (5). The second level decoder (2003) searches in a further stepthe restricted space defined by the list of candidates L₁(y) andproduces, according (2004) to the codebook C_(i2), a smaller list L₂(y)that is analoguously passed to the next decoder. Finally, the lastdecoder (2005) produces, according (2006) to the codebook C_(iL), thefinal estimate of the most likely index m′ of the object enrolled indatabase Di which probably corresponds to the object under verification.Such an organization significantly reduces the search complexity andincreases the identification accuracy by removing a lot of false matchesat each level.

Further embodiments implementing different semantic hierarchical featureorganizations are schematically illustrated in FIG. 18. Theseembodiments include the geometric proximity of features used for thedesign and are based on semantic, block-based and distance-basedmeasures. Semantic grouping of features is based on the clustering orsegmentation of certain elements of object design or images possessingthe same characteristics. Each element of an original image (1801) and acorresponding probe image (1802) is segmented. Instead of exhaustivematching of all descriptors within each semantic group with alldescriptors in the probe image, only the descriptors within one semanticgroup are matched with the descriptors of another semantic group. Thisdrastically increases the accuracy of matching thus reducing the numberof false matches and also decreases the complexity of matching.Block-based and distance-based grouping of features are definitions ofgeometric proximity that assume a rough pre-alignment of the images tobe matched. In the block-based definition of geometric proximity, apartitioning of the image into a set of blocks such as depicted by(1803) and (1804) in FIG. 18 is performed. If some feature is detectedin a given block (1805) of the assumed original image (1803), the likelymatching features are searched only in the nearest neighboring blocks(1806) around the block of the probe image (1804) corresponding to saidgiven block (1805) of the assumed original image. It is obvious that, ifthe images are roughly pre-aligned, it is very likely that the featuresin nearest blocks of one image will be in the nearest correspondingblocks of the other image. In the distance-based definition of geometricproximity illustrated in FIG. 18, the search space of possible matchingfeatures is defined by a circle (1810) of radius R in the probe image(1808) around the detected feature (1809) of the assumed original image(1807). In addition, the image elements can be semantically segmented,like all pixels belonging to the same shape or letter according topredefined rules, and the geometrical features of each region such as acenter of mass can be taken as a representative feature of each element.The line that connects these features can be considered as across-section.

The features extracted from multiple local descriptors such ascross-sections can be additionally efficiently encoded, a correspondingembodiment being schematically and exemplarily illustrated in FIG. 19based on the example of the encoding of cross-section features such asexplained in the context of FIG. 13. The key points in the image, inthis example the design element “BRAND”, are detected and theirdescriptors are computed. The key points with special properties ofdescriptors or their relationship as discussed in the context of FIG. 13description are preselected. In this example, the key points (1501) and(1502) are found to satisfy a defined relationship between the angles(1503) and (1504) to the line connecting these key points and also therequirement that the key points should be in a pre-defined distance toeach other. It is important to note that the absolute distance isirrelevant here, which creates a powerful scale invariant descriptor.The cross-section (1505) along the line connecting the key points (1501)and (1502) in the design element “BRAND” is extracted, saidcross-section (1505) representing a sparse signal. Actually, an evenmore sparse representation can be obtained if the cross-section isdifferentiated by the first order or second order derivative orequivalent high-pass filter. In this case, only the edges of the designelements will represent large magnitudes. The sparsity is important forefficient compression of the extracted features into a low dimensionalvector. The resulting signal is normalized in step (1506) of FIG. 19 toobtain a norm equalling 1. This represents invariance to amplitudedeviations caused by different imaging conditions. The normalized signalis resized to a fixed length in step (1507) of FIG. 19. Thenormalization is done at both the enrollment and identification stages.In this case, the length of signal is invariant to design as well as toscaling. This operation is information lossy since the information aboutthe absolute length is lost. However, in case of ambiguity, it can bestored separately for final validation. At this stage, it is importantto produce fast, reliable and invariant identification. The resultingsignal is transformed to some domain in step (1508). The transform Tshould reduce the dimensionality of vector (1505). It can be a randomprojection transform (RPT) or any transform like DFT, DCT or DWT. Theadvantage of RPT is that the resulting transformed signal (1509) will beindependent and identically distributed with a distribution closelyfollowing the Gaussian probability density function (PDF). In addition,the RPT can be based on a secret key that might be an essential elementin the security of the scheme. Furthermore, the transformed signal(1509) is quantized in step (1510) of FIG. 19 by a vector quantizationVQ that represents a product of vector quantizers trained on multiplesignals using k-means algorithm in each block stored in the codebookC_(q). Each product VQ produces a binary index of defined length. Forsecurity reasons, the dithered vector quantizer can be used with adither vector generated from a secret key. All binary indices areconcatenated together thus producing a final index (1511) which is avery short, binary, invariant descriptor of the image, in the presentexample of the logo “BRAND”. It is possible to produce severaldescriptors from the same image, respectively design, and store thesedescriptors jointly as redundant representations of the design. At thesame time, different criteria can be used to define the part of designthat will be used for the feature extraction. According to the semantichierarchical framework presented in the context of FIGS. 16, 17, and 18,the descriptors can be first deduced for each individual semanticelement, e.g. a letter, then groups of these elements, and finally theentire design like illustrated in FIG. 19.

FIG. 20 shows an example of the framework presented in FIG. 19 appliedto images acquired by mobile phone. The image (1601) represents anoriginal design while (1602) corresponds to a probe acquired by mobilephone under projective transformation. Two cross-sections (1603) and(1604), respectively (1605) and (1606) are extracted in each of theimages and are shown in a common plot (1603). The correspondingnormalized curves are shown in plot (1604). Despite of different imagingconditions, these plots expose a remarkable similarity. Therefore, theresulting binary indices produced by each block of product VQ are veryrobust to geometrical variations and at the same time provide a uniquecharacterization of the design.

FIG. 21 illustrates the framework presented in FIG. 19 applied to a textdocument and FIG. 22 to real images. In FIG. 21, a given document ispre-aligned as a whole such as explained in the context of FIGS. 9 and10 and segmented on lines. A line of text document (2101) such asillustrated exemplarily in FIG. 21 is passed through the featureextraction step (2) according to FIG. 4. The feature extractor computesa histogram (1505) based on a horizontal line through the letters of theline of text which results into a high-dimensional signal (2102). Thetransform T (1508) computes a corresponding low-dimensional signal(1509), which is quantized in step (1510) of product vector quantizationVQ. The resulting index (2104) is stored in the database D_(i) andrepresents the text document. In FIG. 22, the processing steps areequivalent to FIGS. 20 and 21. Multiple key points can be extracted froman original image (1601). The cross-sections are extracted fromdifferent combinations of key points with pre-defined constraints on thegeometrical parameters of the key point locations and their descriptors.Whilst conventional local descriptors provide a local characterizationof images that is not always informative when the same elements ordesign elements or letters are repeated multiple times in many images,the multilevel descriptors proposed by the present invention is verydiscriminative and informative. To demonstrate the robustness of saiddescriptors to projective transformations and noise, a pair of keypoints satisfying the predefined requirements to their local descriptorsis chosen and the image is read out along the line (1601) indicated inFIG. 22 connecting said pair of key points. The same key points areselected on a reproduction of this image (2201) that was, however,distorted based on a projective transform with the addition of Gaussiannoise. The cross-sections shown in plot (2202) expose a remarkablesimilarity. To compensate local shifts between the cross-sections causedby complex projective transforms, a block-wise cross-correlation isapplied to find the best alignment during the quantization step (1510).

According to the present invention, each image is represented bymultiple descriptors and the databases might contain featuresrepresenting millions of images. To ensure fast and accurateidentification, the above considered features should be appropriatelyencoded and indexed. FIG. 23 illustrates in schematic manner a furtherembodiment of a feature encoding framework. In fact, any featuresproduced such as described above in a real or binary form should beencoded to produce a fast and reliable matching. In conventionalencoding represented on the left part of FIG. 23 by steps (2300) and(2310), k-means clustering of features x^(k) (2302), 1<=k<=K, into a setof centroids c^(i)(2301), 1<=i<=I, is used. The features that belong tothe same centroid are grouped and ordered into a tree structure in step(2310). The main problem with this encoding consists in the noisy natureof probe features. In fact, if the feature y^(k) (2303), whichrepresents a noisy counterpart of x^(k) (2302) corresponding toacquisition distortions and originally belongs to the clusterrepresented by the centroid c^(i), it may erroneously be flipped to thecentroid c^(n), like indicated by an arrow in FIG. 23. The conventionalmatching algorithm first matches the feature with a set of centroids andthen looks for the closest match among the features stored in thebranches of the identified centroid, according to the tree structurebuilt in step (2310). Since the noise due to to acquisition distortionsflipped the feature y^(k) to the closest centroid c^(n), theconventional search procedure fails to find the right feature in thecorresponding branch of the original centroid c^(i). To overcome thisproblem, several centroids should be explored simultaneously which isknown as multi-query extension and leads to an increased complexity ofthe matching step. A codebook organization such as presented on themiddle part of FIG. 23 in steps (2320) and (2330) resolves theseproblems. This encoding shall in the following be referred to asmultiple assignment encoding. If the feature is close to the separationboundary between two cells, it is considered as a candidate having ahigh flipping probability. Therefore, overlapping regions (2321), (2322)and (2323) are created at the separation boundaries between neighboringcentroids. The features belonging to these overlapping regions areencoded as if they were belonging to all of the corresponding centroidsin encoding step (2330); i.e. these features are assigned multiple timesto the neighboring centroids. For example, a feature x^(k) might besimultaneously attributed to several centroids. If the acquisitiondistortions flip the feature x^(k) (2302) to y^(k) (2303) like shown in(2340), the nearest centroid c^(n) is found. According to decoding step(2350), all features belonging to the centroid c^(k) will be checked outto find the feature which is the closest one as compared to y^(k). Likeillustrated schematically in encoding step (2330) and decoding step(2350), in this case, the feature y^(k) is not missed during thedecoding step (2350) according to the present invention, because thefeature x^(k) having a high flipping probability had been attributed tocentroids c^(i), c¹, and c^(n) during the encoding step (2330),contrarily to the conventional encoding based on k-means clusteringillustrated in (2310). This advantage is achieved by only a slightincrease in memory use on the device performing these operations.

In order to decide on the importance of features near the boundariesbetween the centroids in the above described feature encoding frameworkaccording to FIG. 23, it is 10 possible to use the feature reliabilityfor efficient encoding in that respect, this concept being schematicallyillustrated in FIG. 24. If the feature x^(k) is closer to the decisionboundary, it is more likely that it will be flipped due to distortions.The region of possible deviations around the feature x^(k) may beassumed to be a sphere with a radius Lsigma, where L denotes thedimensionality of feature x^(k) and sigma stands for the variance ofequivalent noise. The Euclidian/Hamming distance between two centroidsc^(n) and c^(i) is defined as d^(in)=∥c^(n)−c^(i)∥. The reliabilityfunction that corresponds to the probability of flipping the featurex^(k) from the centroid c^(i) to the centroid c^(n) is then defined asR^(in(k))=Q(((x^(k))^(T)(c^(n)−c^(i))−d^(in)/2)/sigma), where(x^(k))^(T)(c^(n)−c^(i)) represents a projection of x^(k) onto the line(c^(n)−c^(i)) and d^(in)/2 corresponds to the half distance between twocentroids with the Euclidian/Hamming distance between two centroidsc^(n) and c^(i) is defined as d^(in)=∥c^(n)−c^(i)∥. This reliabilityfunction can be introduced as a weight into step (2350) illustrated inFIG. 23. In this case, features having high reliabilities are givenpriority and high weights in decoding and matching.

3.2. Alignment

Once an object under verification is identified according to the aboveexplanations, in particular in the context of steps (2), (15), and (16)of FIGS. 4 and 5, the template of the object which probably correspondsto the object under verification is retrieved. However, to perform theauthentication with high precision it is necessary to perform anaccurate alignment such as mentioned in the context of step (402) ofFIG. 4. This should ensure distinguishability between, on the one hand,a real mismatch between a fake and the authentic template and, on theother hand, distortions caused by the acquisition process with mobilephone imaging. FIG. 25 illustrates some typical mobile distortionsoccurring in mobile imaging, particularly on mobile phones equipped withcameras. Such distortions include lens distortions and projectivetransformations which distort an original grid (2501) such as shown in(2502), respectively (2503). The overall effect is highly non-linear.However, each cell might be approximated as a local projective or affinetransform with its own parameters. Accordingly, a matching procedureadapted to deal with such distortions may be based on multiplepartitions of the image to be synchronized such as shown in part (2504)of FIG. 25. Each block of partitioning is aligned with the correspondingpart of a template based on local features. The local features arestored in encoded form as explained above. However, since thepartitioning is random it does not guarantee that the localapproximation exactly follows the assumed affine or projectivetransforms. Therefore, at the authentication stage, the object region(2505) covered by several overlapping blocks is considered to beauthentic if at least one block satisfies a pre-defined measure ofsimilarity. If no such block can be found, the region is considered tobe non-authentic. In practice, mobile imaging with an alignment such asdescribed above can ensure a precision of about 10 micrometers, based ona mean camera resolution of which nowadays mobile phones dispose.

3.3 Authentication

The authentication is the final stage of the verification procedureillustrated in general in FIG. 4. The authentication features y_(a)extracted from the acquired image y are aligned with the featuresx_(a)(m′) obtained from the authentication database D_(a) in thealignment step (402) explained above, thus resulting in alignedauthentication features y_(a)′. The final decision about thecorrespondence of these features is performed in the authentication step(12) of FIG. 4. The system decides about the level of correspondencebetween the features y_(a)′ and the templates x_(a)(m′) and produces anoverall decision on authenticity or displays a difference plothighlighting the major differences between these features. The decisionabout the authenticity of the probe object can be made based on theanalysis of the direct difference between the aligned image and thecorresponding template and its comparison with some threshold.Generally, such a strategy gives very good tamper detection resultsgiven proper feature alignment. However, the storage of templates in theform of bitmap images is memory consuming and highly insecure, and itshould be ensured that the templates will not be in the disposal ofpotential infringers. Therefore, depending on the granularity of theauthentication process, it is preferable to deduce such templatefeatures x_(a)(m′) that allow reliable detection of differences and atthe same time that can be stored and distributed both efficiently andsecurely. For these reasons, in one embodiment of the method, theauthentication features x_(a)(m′) represent the same class of featureslike the ones used for the identification with the difference that theyare extracted to a lower level of granulatity, e.g. in the block-wise orsemantic manners as described above. This makes the process of imagedescription universal and scalable to a particular granularity dependingon the needs of a particular application. For example, the object can bequickly identified with the help of the several features computed at acoarse level and then the design can be authenticated based on featurescomputed at a fine level.

In one embodiment of the method according to the present invention, theauthentication process as a whole comprises enrollment andauthentication steps such as schematically illustrated in FIGS. 26 and27, respectively. FIG. 26 illustrates the enrollment step for theauthentication such as briefly mentioned in the context of FIGS. 2 and3. An image (1) of a given object x(m) is partitioned into blocks tocope with the above mentioned non-linear distortions such as presentedin FIG. 25. This results in image (2601) with each block denoted x(m,b),where m stands for image index and b denotes the block, 1<=b<=B. Eachblock is processed by a transform T in step (1508), thus resulting intoa feature vector x_(a)(m,b). This feature vector is quantized in step(1510) by vector product VQ using the authentication codebook C_(a),based on a set of block VQs (1513), resulting into a quantized featurevector x_(aq)(m,b) which can be represented as an index (2602), which isstored in the authentication database D_(a) in step (9) of FIGS. 4,respectively 26.

The authentication step corresponding to step (12) in FIG. 4 isschematically illustrated in FIG. 27. Given the acquired image yrepresented by its aligned authentication features y′_(a), and the indexm′ produced at the identification step (11) in FIG. 4, theauthentication starts with partitioning the image y into blocks such asdepicted in step (2702) of FIG. 27. Each block is processed individuallyin step (1508) by a transform T resulting into a corresponding featurevector y′_(aT)(b). This feature vector is matched with the vectorx_(aq)(m′,b) stored in the authentication database D_(a) andcorresponding to said index m′ during the matching step (2703) whichproduces a decision about the level of their similarity. The procedureis repeated for all bocks B and the global decision whether the image y,respectively the corresponding digital—or physical object, can beunambiguously identified and thus can be declared to be authentic ismade.

In another embodiment, the above described authentication can be securedsuch as shown in FIG. 28. The security of this scheme is based on thefact that the original authentic features x_(a) are not stored in anopen format but instead shall be protected by cryptographic functionslike a hash H. For the following, it will be assumed that image x(m) ofa corresponding digital—or physical object to be protected and anacquired image y of an object to be authenticated are synchronizedaccording to the previously described procedures, in particularaccording to FIGS. 26 and 27. The transform T and product vectorquantization VQ are applied in steps (1508), respectively (1510) of FIG.28 and produce the corresponding quantized representations of theseimages denoted as x_(aq) and y_(aq). The vector x_(aq) representing theauthentication features x_(a)(m) of image x(m) is processed in two ways.On the one hand side, a secure hash H is computed in step (2802),denoted as H(x_(aq)) in FIG. 28. However, in general, H(x_(aq)) is notequal to H(y_(aq)) even for one bit mismatch. To ensure that thesehashes coincide even for the small level of distortions caused by theacquisition process, additional information is shared. To this effect,on the other hand side, an encoder E produces in step (2801) extra bitsneeded for the errorless recovery of vector x_(aq) based on vectory_(aq). In step (2803), a decoder D observes these bits together withthe noisy vector y_(aq) representing the authentication features y_(a)and extracted from the-acquired image y, such as to produce an accurateestimate x′_(aq) of vector x_(aq), respectively of the hash H(x_(aq)) bycomputing in step (2802) secure hash H(x′_(aq)) based on estimatex′_(aq). If the distortions do not exceed a certain pre-defined level,the decoder is capable to correct all bits based on correction bits fromthe encoder. This results into x′_(aq)=x_(aq) thus H(x′_(aq))=H(x_(aq))which indicates authenticity of the image, respectively of thecorresponding object. Otherwise, a mismatch of the hashes serves as anindication of non-authenticity of the object under verification. Thisfinal decision about the hash mismatch is made in step (2703). Thesecurity of this scheme is ensured by the secure, non-invertibleproperties of the hashes H and inability to deduce the information aboutthe original data from the assisting bits used for the recovery of theauthentication features x′_(aq). Additionally, transform T (508) can bekey based. The described method can be applied to any authenticationfeatures explained above or to a combination of these. The hashes anderror correction bits can be publicly distributed, shared or evenoutsourced to third party services without any risks that the discloseddata can be used for the reproduction of faked products.

FIGS. 29 and 30 illustrate the application of the described methods toauthentication of printed text acquired by mobile phone. In FIG. 29,image (2901) represents an original object while image (2902)corresponds to a counterfeited object reproduced by use of image (2901)under modification of letter “A” in the word “BRAND” and modification ofletters “e” and “t” in the word “Object” by replacement of their fonts.The font replacement in the word “BRAND” also causes a change of spacingbetween the letters. All these modifications are hardly visible by nakedeye. Image (2902) was printed and acquired by mobile phone. FIG. 30shows the differences between the original image (2901) and the fakedimage (2902) of FIG. 29 in three-dimensional-(3001) and two-dimensionalmanner (3002), the differences being represented by the featuresaccording to the method described in the context of FIGS. 26 to 28. Theintroduced modifications are clearly visible and the authentication step(2703) of the method illustrated in FIG. 28 produces the correctdecision that there is no correspondence between the objects representedby images (2901) and (2902). This indicates that the authenticationprocedure based on block-wise local projective approximations such asexplained with respect to FIG. 25 is very accurate and robust as well asadapted for lenses used in mobile phones and the correspondingprojective distortions, such that the authentication algorithm is verysensitive even to minor differences in the object design. The overalldecision about authenticity can be made by analysis of an acceptablelevel of differences. In most cases, such differences appear in theregions of mismatches between text characters and they possess a highcorrelated structure or large variability. Such kind of differences caneasily be detected based on connectivity analysis or comparing the localvariances with some threshold. In case of text documents, good resultsare also obtained even for lossy compressed or downsampled images. Inaddition the differences between the aligned blocks can be computed andtheir absolute values sorted. The analysis of the k largestcoefficients, considered as order statistics, is quite indicative withrespect to the level of differences between the images. In this case,the spatial structure of the differences may not be taken intoconsideration and the decision may be made based on the analysis of thequantity of differences. In another embodiment, the hybrid decisionabout the spatial correlation of differences is based on the selectionof k largest differences and analysis of their local correlatedstructure.

FIGS. 31 and 32 demonstrate the ability of the method according to thepresent invention to detect differences in the halftone patterns ofimages which are invisible to the human eye. In FIG. 31, the letter “U”was printed two times on the same professional printing equipment usingthe same ink, halftone pattern and the same level of accuracy in tuning.The resulting first and second printed images have each been acquiredtwo times by mobile phone cameras resulting in acquired images (3103)and (3105), corresponding to the first printed image, respectively(3104) and (3106), corresponding to the second printed image. Theseimages are shown with magnification to highlight the differences in thehalftoning. Obviously, the images acquired from the same printed image,e.g. (3103) and (3105), respectively (3104) and (3106), look verysimilar. At the same time, there is a significant difference between thehalftone patters acquired from different images, e.g. (3103) and (3104),respectively (3105) and (3106). However, the naked human eye cannotdistinguish the differences between the halftone patters without directcomparison. The method according to the present invention is able todetect these differences with high precision. In FIG. 32, the level ofmismatch between the images (3103) and (3105) acquired from the sameimage printed first is negligible, such as illustrated by differenceplot (3201), in comparison to the level of mismatch between the images(3103) and (3104) acquired from different printed images, such as shownas by difference plot (3202). The proposed method thus is able toclearly detect any non-correspondence in images on microscopic leveleven when the images are acquired in non-synchronized way by mobilephone.

The present invention is also directed to computer program means storedin a computer readable medium which are adapted to implement the aboveproposed method as well as to a device adapted for implementation ofsuch a method. A corresponding device may consist in a mobile phone, inparticular a smart phone equipped with a camera, a digital photoapparatus, a digital video camera, a barcode reader equipped with acamera, or any other mobile or stationary device which can be equippedwith corresponding software such as to allow the user of the device toperform the method. Typical stationary devices which are adapted forimplementation of a method according to the present invention are e.g.flatbed scanners, which would allow these devices to perform averification of the scanned text and/or image. In fact, as far as themobile or stationary device is equipped with a camera or another imageacquisition facility, the corresponding software implementing theproposed method, and an Internet connection providing access to thedatabases used by the method, the user can directly make use of therecognition and/or authentication method according to the presentinvention.

Furthermore, it is clear that use of the method disclosed herein may bemade in a plurality of applications, in particular for the protection ofdigital media, also if reproduced in analog form, and/or of printeddocuments, for recognition and/or authentication of digital—and/orphysical objects, for content and/or object authentication and/oridentification, detection of local modification, as well as objectand/or content related management, tracking, tracing and/or monitoring.Particularly interesting fields of application are the rapid and simpleprotection and verification of banknotes, recognition of objects incommerce, e.g. in assistance to or replacement of barcode readers usedin supermarkets. By the way, the proposed method may, for certain typesof applications, be limited to a rapid identification of the objectunder verification, e.g. if the required level of confidence doesn'trequire verification of authenticity. In such rare cases, theauthentication step may be skipped. In general, the present inventionallows to provide protection for any kind of digital objects as well asfor physical objects like packaging, documents, luxury goods likewatches, and electronics. In addition, any inherent deviations inmanufacturing of banknotes linked to their ID numbers, or to theproduction of the same design produced on different machines and indifferent countries can be enrolled, such as to be used for theauthentication as an additional security feature. Moreover, thedifferent modulation and watermarking technologies leaving a uniquetrace in the product design reflected in vector graphics or textsymbologies reproduced by various means like images or barcodes can beefficiently used for verification even without knowing the explicitlyused technology or encoded information. Therefore, the verification canbe applied to both marked and non-marked object, thus creating a uniquebackward compatibility. In addition, the database of images representingthe enrolled objects can be used for analysis and evaluating statisticsof uploads of authentic objects as well as of fakes. In particular, theimages can be classified according to the type of brands using theproposed identification. The images within one brand can be furtherclustered into sub-groups based on the similarity of their features.This information might be very useful to group all brands produced byauthorized facilities and to distinguish them from those manufactured inillegal way. More particularly, grouping and analyzing of fakes mightreveal very important information on how many illegal producers are onthe market and in which regions they distribute their products, or anysimilar information. This allows to estimate the scale and geographicdistribution of faked products and eventually even to tracecorresponding supply chains.

In light of the above description of the structure and of the operatingmode of the present invention, its advantages are clear. Primarily, themethod according to the present invention allows to realize detection ofmicroscopic differences between a known authentic template imageattributed to a specific digital—or physical object and an acquiredimage, in particular acquired by mobile phone cameras, attributed to anobject under the investigation. This forms the main idea behind thepresent invention and has an enormous potential in the context of securerecognition and authentication of objects of all type. Its interest isincreased by the fact that the recognition and/or authentication maydirectly be performed by the end consumers who are in position to simplyuse the method on their own devices, given that neither specificknow-how nor equipment is necessary once their mobile phone is equippedwith a camera, the corresponding software, and an internet connectionproviding access to the databases used by the method. Moreover, theproposed approach benefits from the fact that modern smart phonesrepresent powerful platforms with imaging, computational andcommunication facilities. Indeed, the computational power and memory ofthese devices currently achieve about tent percent of those of moderndesktop computers, such that by carefully designing the correspondingalgorithms for the proposed method it has become possible to cope withcomplexity and storage restrictions even on mobile devices. Therefore,performing such verification on the portable devices of end consumers isextremely attractive both for brand owners and for consumers. Inaddition, such functionality can be considered as a perfect marketanalysis tool, because information from verifications performed by endconsumers could be stored and analyzed, e.g. to contribute towardsaccurate and fast information on geographical trends in appearance anddistribution in counterfeiting goods as soon as such items enter themarket. The protection is achieved by means of registering and encodingthe features of the original object design, thus enabling very accurateand fast verification of the correspondence between the features of theobject under the inspection to those of the original object. Thesefeatures can be accurately extracted from the images acquired by theportable devices using the alignment end encoding according to thepresent method. Also, this approach provides a non-invasive automaticverification given the fact that modification of the objects to beprotected, respectively of its manufacturing process are not required.For these reasons and advantages, the method of recognition and/orverification of authenticity according to the present invention based onimage acquisition by portable devices is of great interest.

1. A method for recognition and/or verification of authenticity ofdigital and/or physical objects comprising: a codebook training stepcomprising: providing a training set of images x(1), . . . , x(T)consisting of T training images, extracting for each image x(1), . . . ,x(T) at least one set of training features (x_(i)(1), . . . , x_(i)(T),x_(a)(1), . . . , x_(a)(T)), obtaining at least one set of centroids forsaid at least one set of training features (x_(i)(1), . . . , x_(i)(T),x_(a)(1), . . . , x_(a)(T)), registering said at least one set ofcentroids in at least one codebook, an object enrollment stepcomprising: acquiring an image x(m) of an object x to be protected,extracting at least one set of features (x_(i)(m), x_(a)(m)) from imagex(m), enrolling and storing said at least one set of features (x_(i)(m),x_(a)(m)) in at least one database, repeating said acquiring,extracting, and enrolling steps for each object to be protected, anobject verification step comprising: acquiring an image y of an objectunder verification, extracting at least one set of features (y_(i),y_(a)) from image y, identifying object y by producing an estimate ofthe object index m′ referring to the at least one database comprising atleast one of said sets of enrolled features (x_(i)(m)), authenticatingthe object by comparing at least one set of features (y′_(a)(m′)) of theacquired image y with at least one set of enrolled features (x_(a)(m′))obtained from at least one of said databases, repeating said extracting,identifying, and authenticating steps for each object to be recognizedand/or authenticated, wherein the method uses two types of features(x_(i)(m), x_(a)(m)), of codebooks, and of databases which arespecifically designed for identification, respectively authentication,the identification database and authentication database having differentorganizations.
 2. The method according to the preceding claim 1, whereinthe identification database is designed as an inverted file with anidentification feature (x_(i)(m)) with a given index m containing thecorresponding indices of objects possessing this feature, whilst theauthentication database is designed as a lookup table storing at index mthe authentication features (x_(a)(m)) of an object with an attributedindex m.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the codebooktraining step further comprises: providing a training set of imagesx(1), . . . , x(T) consisting of T training images, extracting for eachimage x(1), . . . , x(T) identification features (x_(i)(1), . . . ,x₁(T)) and authentication features (x_(a)(1), . . . , x_(a)(T)),applying vector quantizers to said identification features (x_(i)(1), .. . , x_(i)(T)) and authentication features (x_(a)(1), . . . , x_(a)(T))to obtain corresponding sets of identification and authenticationcentroids, registering said sets of centroids in an identificationcodebook and authentication codebook, the object enrollment stepcomprising: acquiring an image x(m) of a digital—or physical object x tobe protected with the help of an acquisition device, in particular withthe help of a mobile phone equipped with a camera, directly from thephysical object or from an electronic file, extracting identificationfeatures x_(i)(m) and authentication features x_(a)(m) from image x(m),enrolling and storing identification features x_(i)(m) in anidentification database and authentication features x_(a)(m) in anauthentication database, repeating said acquiring (1), extracting (2,6), and enrolling steps (4, 5, 8, 9) for each object to be protected,the object verification step comprising: acquiring an image y of anobject under verification with the help of said acquisition device,extracting identification features (y_(i)) and authentication features(y_(a)) from image y, identifying object y by producing an estimate ofthe object index m′ referring to the identification database of enrolledidentification features (x_(i)(m′)) by matching the identificationfeatures (y_(i)) extracted from the acquired image y with theidentification features (x_(i)(m′)) stored in the identificationdatabase using a fast matching procedure via an inverted file, aligningthe authentication features (y_(a)(m′)) extracted from the acquiredimage y with the enrolled authentication features (x_(a)(m′)) of theobject estimate m′, resulting in aligned authentication features(y′_(a)(m′)), authenticating the object by comparing the alignedauthentication features (y′_(a)(m′)) of the acquired image y with theenrolled authentication features (x_(a)(m′)) obtained from theauthentication database with the help of the estimate of the objectindex m′, repeating said extracting, identifying, aligning, andauthenticating steps for each object to be recognized and/orauthenticated.
 4. The method according to the preceding claim 3, whereinthe step of extracting the identification features (y_(i)) from image ycomprises an optional step of global alignment as well as the steps ofkey points extraction and computation of descriptors.
 5. The methodaccording to claim 3, wherein the step of extracting the identificationfeatures (y_(i)) from image y comprises determining descriptors (y_(d))at positions defined by a set of key points (y_(k)) in an aligned imagey_(all) of image y and combining said key points (y_(k)) and theirdescriptors (y_(d)) into a compact form corresponding to saididentification features (y_(i)).
 6. The method according to claim 5,wherein said descriptors are chosen from the group comprising an anglebetween the gradient at a key point and the nearest design element inclock-wise order, distances between given key points and/or theirratios, features extracted along a virtual connecting line between givenkey points, in particular ratios between black and white and/orotherwise differently coulored regions and/or between the positions ofcrossing points, ratios between angles formed between the gradients andsaid connecting line between given key points, ratios of all angles anddistances between all local descriptors, all preferably represented inquantized manner by encoding based on Gray labelling.
 7. The methodaccording to claim 3, wherein the identification features (x_(i)(m),y_(i)) are organized into a specific semantic hierarchical featurestructure by sequential, semantic, block-based, and/or distance-basedcombination of the identification features extracted from individualelements at several hierarchical levels.
 8. The method according toclaim 3, wherein extracting the identification features (y_(i)) fromimage y corresponding to an object under verification is performed basedon hierarchical semantic organization, the identification features(y_(i)) being extracted from the image y by use of at least one leveldecoder producing a list of possible candidates L₁ (y) matching best ateach level representation according to each level codebook in order toproduce an estimate of the most likely index m′ of the object enrolledin the identification database which probably corresponds to the objectunder verification.
 9. The method according to claim 3, wherein theidentification features x_(i)(m) extracted from image x(m) during theenrollment step and the identification features (y_(i)) extracted froman acquired image y are encoded by applying a normalization, resizing,transformation to some domain, preferably by random projection transform(RPT) or another transform like DFT, DCT or DWT, and quantization suchas to produce a binary index representing a feature or a set offeatures.
 10. The method according to claim 3, the identificationfeatures x_(i)(m) extracted from image x(m) during the enrollment stepand the identification features (y_(i)) extracted from an acquired imagey are encoded by applying multiple assignment by creating overlappingregions at the separation boundaries between neighboring centroids(c^(i), c^(l), c^(n)) and attributing features (x^(k)) belonging tothese overlapping regions to all of the corresponding centroids (c^(i),c^(l), c^(n)) both in the encoding and decoding steps, the overlappingregions being defined with the help of a reliability functionR^(in(k))=Q(((x^(k))^(T)(c^(n)−c^(i))−d^(in)/2)/sigma) corresponding tothe probability of flipping a given feature x^(k) from centroid c^(i) tocentroid c^(n), where (x^(k))^(T)(c^(n)−c^(i)) represents a projectionof x^(k) onto the line (c^(n)−c^(i)) and d^(in)/2 corresponds to thehalf distance between two centroids with the Euclidian distance betweentwo centroids c^(n) and c^(i) being defined as d^(in)=∥c^(n)−c^(i)∥,said reliability function R^(in(k)) being used as a weight at least forthe features near the boundaries between the centroids of neighboringcentroids (c^(i), c^(l), c^(n)).
 11. The method according to claim 3,wherein aligning the authentication features (y_(a)) extracted from theacquired image y with the enrolled authentication features (x_(a)(m′))of the object estimate m′, resulting in aligned authentication features(y′_(a)), is performed by partitioning the acquired image y and aligningeach partition with a corresponding part of a template imagecorresponding to the object estimate m′ by use of a local projectivetransform based on local features of each partition.
 12. The methodaccording to claim 3, wherein the authentication features x_(a)(m)extracted from image x(m) during the enrollment step are encoded bypartitioning said image x(m) into blocks x(m,b) and applying atransformation to some domain, preferably by random projection transform(RPT) or another transform like DFT, DCT or DWT, to produce a featurevector x_(a)(m,b) as well as a quantization such as to produce aquantized feature vector x_(aq)(m,b) which can be represented by anindex stored in the authentication database.
 13. The method according toclaim 3, wherein the aligned authentication features (y′_(a)) extractedfrom an acquired image y are processed by partitioning said image y intoblocks y(b) and applying a transformation to some domain, preferably byrandom projection transform (RPT) or another transform like DFT, DCT orDWT, such as to produce a feature vector y′_(aT)(b) which can be matchedwith a corresponding template vector x_(aq)(m′,b) obtained from theauthentication database with the help of the estimate of the objectindex m′, such as to allow a decision on the authenticity of the objectunder verification corresponding to the acquired image y.
 14. The methodaccording to claim 12, wherein the quantized feature vector x_(aq)(m,b)representing the authentication features (x_(a)(m)) extracted from imagex(m) is used to produce both a secure hash H(x_(aq)) and supplementaryinformation needed for the errorless recovery of vector x_(aq)(m,b), adecoder being adapted to observe these bits together with a noisy vectory_(aq) representing the authentication features (y_(a)) and extractedfrom the acquired image y, allowing the decoder to produce an estimatex′_(aq) of vector x_(aq), respectively an estimate H(x′_(aq)) of thehash H(x_(aq)) based on estimate x′_(aq), such as to allow a decision onthe authenticity of the object under verification by comparison ofsecure hash H(x_(aq)) and estimated hash H(x′_(aq)).
 15. A computerprogram stored in a non-tangible computer readable medium adapted toimplement the proposed method according to claim
 1. 16. A device adaptedfor implementation of a method according to claim 1, wherein the deviceis chosen from the group comprising consisting of a mobile phone, in asmart phone equipped with a camera, a digital photo apparatus, a digitalvideo camera, a barcode reader equipped with a camera, a scanningdevice.
 17. The use of a method according to claim 1 for an applicationchosen from the group comprising protection of digital media and/or ofprinted documents, recognition and/or authentication of digital—and/orphysical objects, content and/or object identification and/orauthentication, detection of local modification, object and/or contentrelated management, tracking, tracing and/or monitoring, in particularproduct identification and tracking in commerce, protection of physicalobjects like packaging, digital—and physical documents, in particulartext and identity documents, luxury goods like watches, and electronics,verification of banknotes.